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The Berkeley Evolution Site Students and teachers who explore the Berkeley site will find resources to help them understand and teach evolution. The materials are organized into a variety of learning paths like “What did T. rex taste like?” Charles Darwin's theory on natural selection describes how species who are better equipped to adapt biologically to a changing environment survive over time and those that do not end up becoming extinct. This process of biological evolution is the basis of science. What is Evolution? The term “evolution” has a variety of nonscientific meanings. For instance “progress” or “descent with modification.” It is scientifically based and is used to describe the process of change of traits over time in organisms or species. The reason for this change is biological terms on natural drift and selection. Evolution is a central tenet of modern biology. It is a theory that has been tested and confirmed by thousands of scientific tests. It does not address spiritual beliefs or God's presence in the same way as other theories in science, like the Copernican or germ theory of diseases. Early evolutionists, such as Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Erasmus Darwin (Charles's grandfather) believed that certain physical traits were predetermined to change, in a gradual manner, as time passes. This was referred to as the “Ladder of Nature” or scala naturae. Charles Lyell first used this term in 1833 in his Principles of Geology. In the early 1800s, Darwin formulated his theory of evolution and published it in his book On the Origin of Species. It asserts that different species of organisms share the same ancestry, which can be proven through fossils and other evidence. This is the modern view of evolution that is supported by a variety of lines of research in science that include molecular genetics. Scientists do not know the evolution of organisms, but they are confident that natural selection and genetic drift are the reason for the development of life. Individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, and these individuals pass their genes on to the next generation. Over time, this results in gradual changes to the gene pool, which eventually lead to new species and forms. Certain scientists use the term evolution in reference to large-scale change, such as the formation of a species from an ancestral one. Certain scientists, such as population geneticists define evolution in a broader sense by talking about the net change in the frequency of alleles across generations. Both definitions are acceptable and precise however, some scientists claim that the allele-frequency definition omits important features of the evolutionary process. Origins of Life The emergence of life is a key step in the process of evolution. This happens when living systems begin to evolve at the micro level, within cells, for example. The origins of life is one of the major topics in various disciplines such as biology, chemistry, and geology. The origin of life is a topic of interest in science because it is a challenge to the theory of evolution. It is often called “the mystery of life,” or “abiogenesis.” Traditionally, the idea that life can emerge from nonliving things is called spontaneous generation, or “spontaneous evolution.” This was a common belief before Louis Pasteur's experiments proved that it was impossible for the emergence of life to happen through an entirely natural process. Many scientists still believe it is possible to make the transition from nonliving substances to living. However, the conditions required are extremely difficult to reproduce in a laboratory. This is why scientists investigating the origins of life are also interested in understanding the physical properties of the early Earth and other planets. In addition, the development of life is a sequence of very complex chemical reactions that cannot be predicted from the fundamental physical laws alone. These include the reading of long, information-rich molecules (DNA or RNA) into proteins that carry out functions as well as the replication of these complex molecules to generate new DNA or sequences of RNA. These chemical reactions can be compared to a chicken-and egg problem: the emergence and development of DNA/RNA, protein-based cell machinery, is essential for the beginning of life. But without life, the chemistry needed to enable it does appear to work. Abiogenesis research requires collaboration between researchers from different fields. This includes prebiotic scientists, astrobiologists and planetary scientists. Evolutionary Changes The term “evolution” today is used to describe the general changes in genetic traits over time. These changes may be the result of adaptation to environmental pressures as discussed in Darwinism. find out here now increases the frequency of genes that provide an advantage for survival in the species, leading to an overall change in the appearance of a group. The specific mechanisms responsible for these changes in evolutionary process include mutation, reshuffling of genes during sexual reproduction, and gene flow between populations. While mutation and reshuffling of genes occur in all organisms and the process by which beneficial mutations are more prevalent is called natural selection. As mentioned above, those with the beneficial characteristic have a higher reproduction rate than those who don't. This differential in the number of offspring born over a long period of time can result in a gradual shift in the average number of beneficial traits within the group. One good example is the growth of the size of the beaks on different species of finches on the Galapagos Islands, which have evolved different shaped beaks that allow them to easily access food in their new home. These changes in form and shape can also help create new organisms. Most of the changes that take place are caused by one mutation, but sometimes, several changes occur simultaneously. Most of these changes are neutral or even detrimental to the organism, however, a small proportion of them can be beneficial to the longevity and reproduction of the species, thus increasing their frequency in the population over time. Natural selection is a mechanism that causes the accumulating change over time that leads to a new species. Some people confuse the idea of evolution with the idea that inherited characteristics can be altered through conscious choice or by use and abuse, a concept known as soft inheritance. This is a misunderstanding of the biological processes that lead to the process of evolution. A more accurate description of evolution is that it involves a two-step process, that involves the distinct and often conflicting forces of natural selection and mutation. Origins of Humans Humans of today (Homo Sapiens) evolved from primates, a species of mammal species which includes chimpanzees and gorillas. The earliest human fossils indicate that our ancestors were bipeds. They were walkers with two legs. Biological and genetic similarities indicate that we share a close relationship with Chimpanzees. In reality, we are most closely related to the chimpanzees within the Pan genus, which includes pygmy chimpanzees and bonobos. The last common ancestor between modern humans and chimpanzees was between 8 and 6 million years old. In the course of time, humans have developed a variety of characteristics, including bipedalism as well as the use of fire. They also developed advanced tools. But it's only in the past 100,000 years or so that most of the essential characteristics that differentiate us from other species have developed. These include a large brain that is sophisticated human ability to create and use tools, and the diversity of our culture. The process of evolution occurs when genetic changes enable members of an organization to better adapt to the environment. Natural selection is the process that drives this change. Certain characteristics are more desirable than others. People with better adaptations are more likely to pass on their genes to the next generation. This is the way all species evolve, and the basis for the theory of evolution. Scientists call it the “law of Natural Selection.” The law states that species which have an ancestor in common will tend to acquire similar traits as time passes. This is because these characteristics make it easier for them to live and reproduce in their environments. Every living thing has a DNA molecule that is the source of information that helps guide their growth and development. The structure of DNA is composed of base pairs which are arranged in a spiral, around sugar and phosphate molecules. The sequence of bases in each string determines the phenotype or the appearance and behavior of an individual. Different mutations and reshuffling of the genetic material (known as alleles) during reproduction causes variations in a population. Fossils from the earliest human species Homo erectus, and Homo neanderthalensis have been discovered in Africa, Asia and Europe. These fossils, despite differences in their appearance, all support the idea that modern humans' ancestors originated in Africa. Genetic and fossil evidence also suggest that early humans came out of Africa into Asia and then Europe.